Case summary and examination of Obstetrics Posting

Case synopsis and assessment of Obstetrics Posting Madam NTR is a 34 years of age Malay woman with gravida 4 and equality 3, as of now at 37 weeks of growths. She was conceded on 21st Nov 2010 at gestational age of 30 weeks and 1 day, because of referral from Health Clinic Sendayan taking into account placenta previa dependent on ultrasound discoveries during a routine antenatal visit. Her evaluated date of conveyance was on twentieth Jan 2011. She was asymptomatic without any grumblings of per vaginal dying, compression torment, spilling alcohol or show. Fetal developments were felt and were not decreased. She has no history of placenta previa in her past pregnancies. The main day of her last ordinary menstrual period was on fifteenth Apr 2010. This was a sudden pregnancy yet both her and her better half needed it. She speculated she was pregnant when she missed her menses for about a month. She affirmed her pregnancy after pee pregnancy test done in a private center yielded positive outcome. Booking was done in Maternal and Child H ealth Clinic Gadong at about four months of growth and the dating filter at about four months uncovered boundaries comparing to date. Nonetheless, placenta was noted to be low lying during that check. All through her routine antenatal visits, she was normotensive, not iron deficient and didn't have diabetes mellitus. HIV and VDRL test were negative. Her blood bunch type is O Rh Dâ positive. This is her fourth pregnancy. Her third pregnancy was in the time of 2007. She conveyed a full term infant kid with birth weight of 2.6 kg through cesarean conveyance because of breech introduction in Hospital Tuanku Jaafar Seremban. She conveyed her initial two youngsters who are the two guys in the time of 2004 and 2005 through unconstrained vaginal conveyance, with birth weight of 4.26kg and 2.6kg individually. There was no history of shoulder dystocia. Every one of her kids were brought into the world fit as a fiddle. Antenatal, natal and postnatal for every past pregnancy were uneventful. S he achieved menarche at 12 years old. It is normal at 28 to 30 days cycle with term of 5 to 7 days. There was neither dysmenorrhea nor menorrhagia. She rehearsed sex interuptus as preventative measure. She never had any PAP smear done already. Past careful, clinical and medicate history were unremarkable. Family ancestry was unremarkable. She and her significant other are hitched for a long time. They are remaining along with their three youngsters in Gadong Jaya Village. She is a housewife. She neither smokes nor drinks liquor. Then again, her significant other fills in as a development laborer. He is a smoker yet not alcoholic. Family salary is roughly RM2000 every month which is scarcely satisfactory for their living. Physical assessment: Madam NTR was alert, cognizant and open. She was not in torment or respiratory pain. Her tallness and weight are 165cm and 76kg individually. Her circulatory strain was 110/80 mmHg; beat rate was 86 beats for each moment of customary cadence and solid volume; temperature was 37â ° C; respiratory rate was 19 breaths for every moment. Every essential sign were inside ordinary range. Upon general assessment, there was no conjunctival paleness, sclera jaundice, palmar erythema or fringe cyanosis. Thyroid organs were not obvious and bosom assessment was unremarkable. There was reciprocal pedal edema up to mid-shin. Cardiopulmonary assessment was unremarkable.

Stability Testing of Nifedeipine

Security Testing of Nifedeipine Syed Masood Hassan Akbari Down to earth 2 Stability investigation of Nifedipine Presentation Nifedipine is considered as a model compound of the dihydropyridine class of calcium channel adversaries. Nifedipine is a particular blood vessel dilator, and furthermore is utilized in the treatment of hypertension, angina and cardiovascular issue. The disadvantage related with nifedipine is that it can experience photograph corruption in this manner raising in loss of pharmacological action. This procedure includes the decrease of the sweet-smelling nitro gathering to nitroso gathering or the oxidation of the dihydropyridine ring to a pyridine ring. Nifedipine synthesizers utilize light safe covering to diminish their photograph corruption. It has been discovered that because of poor stockpiling conditions the clinical adequacy of nifedipine can drop radically. So as to fix this a determination of fixings inside the measurements structure can be adjusted or improved so as to limit photosensitivity. Particle trade dabs are strong and appropriately are high sub-atomic weight polyelec trolytes that can without much of a stretch trade their portable particles of equivalent accuse of neighboring medium reversibly. The particle trade dot can frame a complex with nifedipine and its utility used to grasp sedate in light natures. Precariousness of the medication item may prompt a decrease in the bioavailability of the medication. It is likewise profoundly significant that the patients do get their uniform does of the medication all through the entire of the timeframe of realistic usability of the item. This trial experiences the photodecomposition energy of nifedipine at zero-request when the response begins. As the response continues further to half the energy of the response changes to first-arrange. Figure 1: Represents nifedipine debasement at the two unique frequencies appeared previously. This investigation comprised of 3 principle segments: Deciding the strength of nifedipine utilizing HPLC at different time interims. Assessing the half-life for the vanishing drug. Inspecting the overall soundness of the medication as powder and in arrangement. Test For HPLC 20mg of nifedipine was weighed out and set in a 100ml volumetric carafe utilizing the portable stage to top up the jar. The subsequent arrangements colouration was noted and moved to a measuring glass and secured with paraffin. A little inclusion was made to take up 2ml of the arrangement into an infusion utilizing a 0.2â µm channel. The time was noted and the example was stacked and run quickly and the measuring utencil was secured with paraffin and put on an edge where daylight was available and after each 15 min interims the example was infused into the mechanical assembly and it was run. After each run was completed the pinnacle territory for every one of the runs were recorded. For security in strong structure 100mg of the strong example of nifedipine was weighed out in a gauging pontoon and spread out equally and put on a window sill with legitimate Irish daylight for a term of 2 hours. The appearance was noted when the time slipped by. The strong example was then homogenized and 20mg was taken and set in a 100ml volumetric jar and made sufficient with the versatile stage. Straight away 2ml arrangement was taken and put on a 0.2â µm channel and was prepared for infusion. The pinnacle region of the strong example was recorded in the report. RESULTS CONCLUSIONS Assurance of the security of nifedipine strong and fluid examples with daylight. Table 1: Shows the nifedipine run time with brief interims, the strong structure and an UV test. The delineations underneath show the HPLC tops at different time interims with their maintenance times, top zone and statures. Figure 2: Depicts nifedipine at T0. Figure 3: Depicts nifedipine at T20. Figure 4: Depicts nifedipine at T35. Figure 5: Depicts nifedipine at T50. Figure 6: Depicts nifedipine at T65. Figure 7: Depicts nifedipine at T80. Figure 8: Depicts nifedipine at T95. Figure 9: Represents the pinnacle region plotted against time of nifedipine corruption taken at brief interims. In the wake of doing the examination it tends to be said taking a gander at the information that the response energy are of zero request at any rate from T0-T80. At T95 it is seen that the pinnacle gets somewhat expansive it can show that another pinnacle is beginning to shape, it the analysis had proceeded for in any event 45 minutes all the more then it could have been the beginning of the primary request response energy. In this way it tends to be reasoned that as per the information achieved the response energy are still at zero request during information obtaining. From the diagram utilizing the condition: y = a + bx b = slant = - 12046.1 +/ - 841.833 The half-existence of nifedipine was discovered utilizing the condition: As we were managing zero request energy thus, r = k Utilizing, t1/2 = In(2)/k t1/2 = 0.693/0.988 t1/2 = 0.701 As per the information accumulated it is seen that the strong example of nifedipine looks like to the first T0 fluid example. By this perception an individual can say that the strong state test didn't give any indications of debasement after the 2 hour window. The shade of the fluid examples were changing from yellow at T0 to black out yellow at T80. Then again for the strong example from the light yellow powder after the 2 hour window a layer of dull yellow powder was seen and the powder was blended around and it was seen the basic strong particles despite everything held a similar shade of light yellow. As indicated by the UV information at T0 and Ɔºmax of 334 it produced an absorbance of 0.604. Though for the T100 with a Ɔºmax of 279 produced an absorbance of 1.064. QUESTIONS Remark on the overall photostability of strong and arrangement nifedipine in light. The strong example of nifedipine subsequent to being open to 2 hours of Irish daylight visual perception indicated a darker shading change from light yellow to a darker yet when the powder was blended the basic layer was of a similar light colouration as it began with. Also, after the 2 hours window the HPLC result demonstrated no corruption by any means. This could be because of the down to earth being completed in entryways and the absence of the photons getting to the strong example. Then again in the fluid example things were very little better from a yellow arrangement beginning at T0 †T80 there was no shading change yet in the wake of playing out the following HPLC the shading had gone swoon yellow. On the off chance that the mechanical assembly would have been given brief more the outcomes accomplished would be of first request energy. As it stands it is zero request energy. What sort of response is the nifedipine deterioration? Decrease What other decay responses do you figure nifedipine may experience? Oxidation What are the ramifications of your perceptions for the best possible dealing with and capacity of nifedipine? Makers of nifedipine items utilize light safe covering or pressing to limit their photodegradation. Long haul introduction to daylight or counterfeit light may likewise happen if nifedipine plans are improperly put away by patients. Poor stockpiling conditions may possibly diminish clinical viability of nifedipine. What approval do you think may be significant in the sort of investigation you performed today? â€Å"Validation of a diagnostic technique is the procedure that builds up by research center investigations, that the presentation attributes of the strategy meet the necessities for the proposed systematic applications.† The ordinary diagnostic attributes utilized in strategy approval differ however the significant one for this test is steadiness, framework reasonableness and framework affectability. â€Å"Prepared test/standard steadiness is characterized as the capacity of the analyte to stay stable in the diluent at the test focus determined in the systematic method.† Framework reasonableness testing is a vital piece of numerous investigative techniques. The tests depend on the idea that the examples to be examined establish a vital framework that can be assessed all things considered. Framework reasonableness is controlled by different strategies. Any one or a mix of the next might be composed into the strategy as important for utilizing the technique for routine post approval: Goals guarantees that intently eluting mixes are settled from one another and builds up the settling intensity of the framework. It contains as close as is conceivable to a total example lattice. At last limit factor is a proportion of the time the solute spends in the fixed stage comparative with the time it spends in the versatile stage.

Prof. Catherine DIgnazio on Urban Science for Public Good

Prof. Catherine DIgnazio on Urban Science for Public Good One of the strange things about being 10,000 years old is that, while Ive been tooling away judging teens, some of my classmates/labmates from when I was in my masters program have gone on to build careers in academia. Some are even professors! And, as of this term, one of them, Catherine DIgnazio, is even a professor at MIT! Oh god Im old.   Earlier today, Catherine circulated an announcement (and syllabus) for a new class she is teaching this term that I thought sounded totally rad: 11.S01 â€" 3 credits Urban Science for Public Good: Gender and Racial Equity in Artificial Intelligence Meets Mon 1:30 3pm First-year Discovery class Gender and racial equity are often central goals of urban planning. But what are gender and race? What happens when we start to measure and model these dimensions of identity? Conversely, what happens when we ignore gender and race in urban computation? This course introduces students to some of the leading scientists, theorists and practitioners who are working to challenge bias in AI and to use data and computation to work towards gender and racial equity in cities. Along the way, we will reflect on our own identities and learn critical concepts to navigate gender and race from fields such as Urban Planning, Womens Gender Studies, Critical Race Studies, and Computer Science. I know from reading applications that a lot of prospective MIT students are interested in how to use/change technology to make the world less awful, and Catherine is one of the central faculty members involved in building out a new major (and affiliated lab) where that is a central object of concern contemporaneous with the new College of Computing. So I thought Id ask her a few questions over email about who she is, what shes doing, and how people at/aspiring to MIT can stay informed. Who are you?   Im a new faculty at MIT in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning. My somewhat untraditional background is in software development, art/design and civic media. I graduated from the Media Lab/Center for Civic Media back in 2014 and have been thinking about how we can use data and technology for social good for some time. I also have a new book coming out called Data Feminism where Lauren Klein and I try to outline what a feminist approach to data science looks like. Spoiler alert: its not (only) about women and not (only) for women because it takes more than one gender to build a just and fair world.   How would you describe what and how you hope to teach (in this class and generally at MIT)? I like building things and making things, and Im very excited to be back at MIT where so many incredible things are built and made. Im also thrilled to be part of DUSPs new urban science major (Course 11-6) that we are doing in collaboration with Course 6. At the same time, I embrace ideas of participatory design and co-design where you involve communities in the making process. I see this as essential if we are going to build technologies that truly serve the public. So collaboration and participation is a part of all of the classes, where we often work with different outside groups. For example, in my spring course called the Crowd Sourced City we are collaborating with the Cambridge Historical Commission, Boston Public Library and the Geochicas, a feminist activist collective out of Latin America. How do we use data and technology to create more equitable, livable and healthy cities? Thats a question we have to answer through building technology AND building relationships. What are three books, papers, or other media that high school students interested in this field should read? OK I have to say Data Feminism. Other great starting points are Cathy ONeils Weapons of Math Destruction, ProPublicas story on Machine Bias, Joy Buolamwinis video AI, Aint I a Woman?. These start to point out some of the places where we are reproducing structural bias in data and AI, which is a huge risk for those of us who aspire to do good with data science. They also point towards the values, methods and tools we can adopt for us to start to do better. Anything else that you want to say? Im starting a new lab called the Data + Feminism Lab so I would welcome folks to our public mailing list to stay up to date on guest speakers, job opportunities and other activities that well post periodically. And just generally, feel free to get in touch with me and tell me about any interesting things happening around the community. I feel like I continue to discover new groups and spaces every day. And I need to learn the tunnels Hope you found this compelling and check out the syllabus and recommended readings so you can follow along at home!

Potential Risk to an Organisation of Committing to an...

I am going to be explaining the potential risk to an organisation of committing to an E-commerce system. E-commerce has many drawbacks. I will be going through these drawbacks that risk an organisation of committing to an E-commerce system. * Advertising and maintaining website * Hackers * Identity theft * Website not being recognised * Viruses * Profit * Delivery Advertising and maintaining website A drawback of an Ecommerce is the advertising. If no-one knows it exists it will not generate any revenue. Of course the most effective way of advertising your online business is through the word of mouth, so you need to build a customer base for your business. Maintaining website is important. Customers want†¦show more content†¦Delivery Delivery can be a huge drawback when committing to Ecommerce. These could be your packages can be left on your doorstep this can cause someone to steal your purchase or probably damaged. Packages can be delivered at unpredictable times during working hours. Which then you have to wait another 2 days to either receive the product or you have to travel yourself to get your item. Another potential risk to an organisation of committing to an E-commerce is that they delay goods. E-commerce website delivery takes a lot longer to get the goods into your hands. Viruses Viruses can do a multitude of things. Many viruses, which disguise themselves as tracking cookies, are meant to allow access to personal information that you give out over the internet. If you are shopping and this happens, it can be used for identity theft. Viruses can also slow down your computer significantly, destroy vital data, erase information amp; even shut down your computer. Your browser is executing code all the time. When it downloads web pages, that code is downloading and displaying arbitrary data, pixels, character’s, etc. Since code is data, if your browser tries to execute the data it might actually run. When a website has a virus find them using anti-virus as anti-virus uses a signature string to locate them. When your website has a virus even when you try to access it from different computers and different servers it will have a strange homepage and the newsShow MoreRelatedP1 Describe The Technologies Required For E Commerce1664 Words   |  7 Pages Assignment 1 Client information P1 Describe the technologies required for e-commerce The technologies required for an e-commerce are as follows: server software, pc, and database, web authoring tools, web server, ports, TCP/IP and the browsers. I will be explaining why these technologies are required for an e-commerce. Web servers A web server is a PC that opens pages on a browser on request. It sends the web address of the page that has been requested to the web browser. They have an IP addressRead MoreCritical Success Factors of a Successful Logistics Operator2069 Words   |  9 Pageswhat they want. There must be no errors or backorders. Frankly, with an error rate of over 5% its almost time to give up in disgust and start all over. Errors have to be tracked back to who made them, and why they werent caught out by checks in the system. People make mistakes, and processes have been in place to catch them. And the same goes for backorders. Granted, not much can be done about a late delivery with no warning, but the suppliers actual performance, not promised performance, has to beRead MoreMarket Research and market planning2366 Words   |  10 Pagesï » ¿ Assignment Title: Market Research and market planning P3 describe how a selected organisation uses marketing research to contribute to the development of its marketing plans. Task 1 Definition: market research Market research is a systematic, objective collection and analysis of data about your target market, competition, /or environment with the goal being increased understanding of them. Market research is the study of markets (or groups of people) you wouldRead MoreThe Impact Of E Commerce On Business7352 Words   |  30 Pagesthe impact of e-Commerce on business 1.1 Critically discuss the expectations of internet customers†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 1.2 Critically assess the potential impact of common applications on an e-Commerce business†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..........†¦8 2. Be able to plan an e-Commerce strategy 2.1 Plan an e-Commerce implementation strategy for an e-Commerce business†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.12 3. Be able to manage an e-Commerce strategy 3.1 Critically assess the risks of linking business systems to the internet†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦17Read MoreMAS Holdings Essay3609 Words   |  15 Pagesï » ¿ Organisation and management in the network era The following report contains a brief look into MAS holdings, the company’s history, how they have grown and developed and how they have succeeded in numerous ventures. The report then goes on to address the following questions: 1. Outline the key leadership issues confronting MAS Holdings. 2. 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The Importance Of Success In American History An...

In general, how successful was the lesson? Did the students learn what you intended for them to learn? How did you know? -I believe the lesson was very successful. In the beginning of the lesson, the students were engaged with the Do Now: â€Å"Who are some explores that you know? Which European nations went exploring?† I had multiple students answer with explorers from the time period we were discussing and other from American History. For example some students said, â€Å"Lewis and Clark and Buzz Aldrin.† Second, when the students were logging into Schoology and downloading the Historical Head worksheet and directions, multiple students were helping each other get on task. The students were working diligently throughout the period answering the†¦show more content†¦Some students show their personal talents by drawing images associated with their assigned explorers. Others students asked multiple questions to ensure that they were staying on task or asking me to provide feedback for their work during the period. Some of the students were looking at other websites for more histor ical information about their explorer then the document that was provided. What formative assessments did you use during this lesson to monitor student progress? How did you adjust instruction based on this data? -The formative assessments that I used to monitor the student progress were periodically checking to see how far along the students were in completing the assignment. I also provided more instruction, examples, and made sure the students were answering all the questions that were required. When I saw that multiple students were struggling with one or more of the required questions. I brought the class back together and provided examples of what I was looking for and expending from their work. For example, â€Å"Symbols that best represent the historical figure.† I told the class that these should be actual images of the explorer, where they traveled to, how did they get there, and which nation where they from. Another example of the adjustment was for, â€Å"I hope history remembers me as†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I told the class the example of Michael Jordon wants to be remembered for being one the greatest basketball players of all time. I also, saidShow MoreRelatedThe Battle At Midw ay Was A Critical Turning Point Of The War Essay957 Words   |  4 Pagesturning point of the war in the Pacific during World War II. Attribution to American success is in direct relation to their ability to conduct signal collection and crypto-analysis leading to the battle. The elimination of this capability from consideration during the preparation for this battle will drastically influence the outcome. 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Heuristics and Bias Free Essays

Before meeting with the people at Volvo, I spoke to my supervisor regarding this assignment and my choice. His initial reaction was one of judgment heuristic and availability heuristic. He felt strongly with his convictions about a Volvo due to the experience his brother-in-law had with one and went In to great length on why. We will write a custom essay sample on Heuristics and Bias or any similar topic only for you Order Now Judgment heuristic was shown here for my supervisor made his assessment and judgment of probability simpler and availability heuristic was shown here for he also used what his brother-in-law experienced which Is the process of perception and memory in the imagination. This information was available and fresh in his mind the moment Volvo was mentioned. He did not use information from consumer reports, but Instead used availability heuristic to refer to his brother-in-laws case and based his judgment on that. Events that are easily available within ones mind are more likely judged and to occur according to this heuristic. The biases, which are caused within availability heuristic, are the bias due to the easy retirement of the instances where the supervisor was able to retrieve Just one case against the negative of the Volvo. Also, notice the bias due to effectiveness of the search for the recall process. Many events are hard to recall and some are memorable such as mistakes and errors, there is a bias in the search set itself. Another bias was manageability, which played a role in the evaluation of probability in real life situations (Starker, 2007). An example I would say to him to help in Influencing his decision to a positive about Evolved would be to share a story with him regarding my recent bad experience at a four star restaurant called Blue Fish, when I ate bad shrimp. This does not mean this restaurant Is bad, It Just meaner I had one bad experience, I will either try steak or try the shrimp again for their service, drinks and appetizer were great. This does not mean I will go to my friends and family and say that this restaurant Is bad do not eat there, for In all honestly It Is not a bad restaurant and it Just so happens I had one bad shrimp that resulted in an upset stomach. I would end this example with a question of â€Å"who has this not happened to t any restaurant where one NAS and bad t one time or another? The type tot heuristic that will be employed here to influence my supervisor will be adjustment and anchoring. When adjusting ones beliefs in light of new information there needs to be solid evidence against it. Insufficient adjustment due to anchoring can lead to mistakes. I believe the research I have done is solid information to prayers and influence my supervisor to help change his mind regarding Vole’s (Plops, Chip. 13, 19 93). When I meet with my supervisor once again, I will influence his decision about Vole’s with these facts and statistics such as: with more storage space, redesigned due to feedback from past years, premium small sedan new safety features with more horsepower, a blind spot information system as added as well as a new automatic hazard warning additional optional fun gadgets such as SIRIUS Satellite Radio and high performance audio system (new holds its own against other sport automobiles, cars’, 2007), for most buyers, the standard suspension setup provides plenty of thrills while providing more cushioning over potholes when driving along, while yes it may not have the prestige or athleticism of its German foes, this Volvo costs less, has style with a premium feel, with upgrades added the price may go up, but for a company car one should be reasonable, the base engine will be perfectly adequate ND basic package, this Volvo has slightly better fuel economy than the 2. 41 (Ed munds, 2007), Keeping in mind while all vehicles have their quirks and hiccup one should personally test-drive a vehicle before forming an opinion on what he or she thinks. With all the pros and cons, many people will form their own decisions in the end. The few that I have researched have said that the Volvo S’40 is refined, classy, great and runs Just fine. Even without a slightly more powerful engine, it is as much of a â€Å"real† Volvo as any car is a â€Å"real† car. By utilizing the heuristic strategy f anchoring and adjustment, I feel that I can show my supervisor that what happened to his brother-in-law has happened to many with any vehicle. I would have him ponder on that for a bit, while at the same time showing him what others have to say about the Volvo. I would inform him of the research I did through nectars. Com, Edmunds. Com, and Flavors. Com. By informing him of this, I am using multiple anchor points to help make the final decision that the Volvo is the way to go. When one makes or Judges something or someone based on vividness or recent events, they employ availability heuristic. To help one change their mind or point of view we want to anchor the way adjustment is used and when a decision needs to be made it is made by adjustments to this anchor or starting point. The use of anchoring and adjustment may work in many cases such as this, but at times will not always weigh enough to other factors (Plops, Chip. 13, 1993). References AAU Online. (De. ). (ca. 2006). Unit 3: Heuristics and Bias [multimedia presentation]. Hoffman Estates, IL: AAU Online. How to cite Heuristics and Bias, Papers

Profit Maximization Business

Question: Discuss about the Report for Profit Maximization Business. Answer: 1. Introduction Profit maximization is the objective of each firm. It is the difference between the revenue and costs. In order to run a business, it is important to generate higher profit to increase the operation and scale of the business. However, profit is not used to pay wage; tax or interest, it remains within the firm and invested for further improvement. Therefore, it is important to take right decision that would maximize the level of profit. In the short run, profit can be achieved by avoiding different costs, however, in the long run a firm has to make decision very carefully. By ensuring long run profit, a firm will be able to become competitive in the market. Analysis In a perfectly competitive market structure, all firms attain a constant zero profit level in the long run equilibrium. In reality, firms earn different level of profits. This is mainly because of imperfect competition. Imperfect competition takes place when firm differentiate their product. Differentiation can be made in terms of high product quality that requires innovation or advertising. Innovation is a continuous process and continuous flow of investment is required. In contrast, the advertising is a once-off expenditure. Through advertisement the firms communicate with the consumers and broader society. Advertising is able to change the importance that is attached to specific features of the good. The advertisement differentiates its product by disclosing its quality; price or special feature that is distinct from products of other firms. The distinct features differentiate the products from the competitors. This will reduce the degree of substitution. The major impact of spending in advertisement is the increase in the sales volume. Product differentiation enables the firm to increase its amount of sale, even if the product price is premium. Even if the firm has spent huge amount on advertisement, high sales volume guarantees fairly high margin of costs (Hubbard et al., 2012). This leads to high profits as quantity and price both are high. Therefore, the fixed discretionary advertisement cost of advertising will be justified and can lead to high profit in the future. Figure 1: Advertisement Cost Source: Yan et al., 2014. According to Baumol, increase in the total advertising will increase total revenue, even if there will be diminishing return (Yan et al., 2014). If the firm wants to maximize profit, it will incur advertising cost of OA1. However, if it wants to maximize its sales then it will spend higher cost of advertisement. However, sales maximization is a feature of oligopoly market structure. Monopolistically competitive firm mostly engaged in product differentiation. These firm earn abnormal profit in the short run, however, in the long run they earn normal profit. Figure 2: Supernormal Profit in Short Run Source: Mankiw, 2014 Figure 3:Normal Profit in Long Run Source: Mankiw, 2014 Product differentiation is practiced through innovation and less innovation requires more advertisement. By spending on RD activity, the firm can differentiate its product. However, RD is a risky activity and may result into higher cost than revenue collected in short run. In spite of this fact, this strategy is adopted in order to offer a different product, which will in turn improve sales of the company in the short run as well as long run (Harimaya et al., 2012). Conclusion From the above discussion, it can be said that through once-off expenditure on product differentiation, may lead to maximising economic profit in the long run. However, in practical, the firms emphasize on sales maximization in the long run than profit maximization. Therefore, they focus on making their product different from others through advertising and innovation in order to compete with others in future. 2. Introduction Wage is determined by the law of demand and supply in the labour market. The wage is also paid according to the skill level of the workers. However, in most of the developed economy, the government has set minimum wage, so that wage rate does not fall under certain level (Case, Fair Oster, 2012). The wage rate is different across the occupation and across the industry. However, it has been seen in many cases that the wage is different within the occupation and industry as well. This is often remained unexplained. Analysis The wage is different because the abilities of the workers are not same in a company. a high skilled workers are paid higher wage than a low skilled worker within a company. In addition to this the demand and supply of labours are not same in every sector or across different occupation (Neumuller, 2015). There is huge demand for certain kind of jobs, i.e. supply of labour for a specific job is very high than the vacant positions. In such case, wage tends to fall to reduce the demand. Similarly, when there is vacant position but labour supply is less, the wage tends to increase, to bridge the gap between the demand and supply of labour. The vacant position and eligible labours are different across the occupation and across the industry. Hence, wage differential takes place. Figure 4: Labour Market Source: Created by Author The range of wage varies within the same occupation, because of payment according to the performance standard. In white-collar jobs, workers have high scope to improve their performance as they are engaged in multiple duties. Whereas, the blue-collar jobs offer little scope to improve their performance standard given the type of their work (Visintin et al., 2015). The wage differential also takes place within or across the same industry, because; requirement of skills and the skill levels are different. Apart from heterogeneity in performance and skill, the wage dispersion takes place due to mechanism of search and matching process between employer and workers. Wage also differs due to individual features like gender; age and often race as well. Conclusion From the above discussion, it can be said that theoretically wage rate differs because of different demand and supply across different industries and different occupations. However, in reality, there are several factors that cause wage differential. Such factors are performance improvement ability; individual feature; job searching tenure and so on. These factors vary across the industries. Therefore, economists find it difficult to explain the causes of wage dispersion. References Case, K. E., Fair, R. C., Oster, S. M. (2012). Principles of economics. Prentice Hall, Harimaya, K., Ohkawa, T., Okamura, M., Shinkai, T. (2012). Sales-Maximization vs. Profit-Maximization: Managerial Behavior at Japanese Regional Banks 1980-2009 (No. 94). Hubbard, G., Garnett, A., Lewis, P. (2012). Essentials of economics. Pearson Higher Education AU. Mankiw, N. G. (2014). Principles of macroeconomics. Cengage Learning. Neumuller, S. (2015). Inter-industry wage differentials revisited: Wage volatility and the option value of mobility. Journal of Monetary Economics, 76, 38-54. Visintin, S., Tijdens, K., Steinmetz, S., de Pedraza, P. (2015). Task implementation heterogeneity and wage dispersion. IZA Journal of Labor Economics, 4(1), 1. Yan, R., Myers, C., Wang, J., Ghose, S. (2014). Bundling products to success: The influence of complementarity and advertising. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 21(1), 48-53.

Team Dynamics and Group Formation

Rational Choice Theory

Rational Choice Theory Sociology of religion According to Johnson, when defining the sociology of religion we look at the definition of the term religion as well as the task sociology has in the study of religion. Sociology plays an important role in the study as it involves the recognition of the social reality of any social phenomenon (Johnson 2).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Rational Choice Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Johnson, sociology is the study of how human beings interact with each other within groups. It focuses on how such interactions have an influence on human behavior. In other words, sociology is a field of science that strives to explain the group dynamics and how the groups have influenced individuals and human activities. Groups influence human behavior as they change, shape, and modify an individual’s behavior in one way or another. Groupings exist in the family setting, educational pro grams, as well as peer associations (2). In this respect, religion can be a subject of sociological study as it falls within the constraints of a group. Religion is a group phenomenon because religious organizations tend to organize themselves in groups known as congregations, fellowships, dioceses, and denominations. In this case, sociology helps us understand religion as a social phenomenon (Johnson 3). According to Johnson, sociologists in attempting to define religion have come up with two forms of definitions. There are substantive as well as functional definitions. They go hand in hand in coming up with a clear-cut definition of religion. The substantive and the functional definitions provide a foundation in which one can understand the meaning of religion and the impact it has on the lives of the people. The substantive definition focuses on the nature of religion when it is at its core. In other words, it focuses on the essence of religion (9). On the other hand, the functio nal definition mainly focuses on the impact religion has to the people who practice the religion. In combining the two definitions, sociologists have defined religion to be a phenomenon whose subject matter involves the provision of answers to all questions. It is a phenomenon that is sacred, holy and one that has a supernatural bearing (13). At this point, the sociology of religion involves the description of the reality of religion. According to Johnson, sociology approaches all its subjects with neutrality as well as objectivity when describing reality. Religion is no exception despite its emotional nature and the immeasurable values attached to it. In other words, by the fact that religion qualifies to be a group phenomenon, its sociological investigation must be neutral and objective. In addition, the sociology of religion is of empirical nature. In any study including the study of religion, one must come up with the relevant empirical information and data. This involves factua l analysis, evidence, as well as verifiable procedures. In this case, the sociology of religion involves subjecting the study of religion to scientific methods (7).Advertising Looking for essay on social sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The importance of the sociology of religion However, sociology’s limitation in describing the reality of religion exists as it can only make conclusions on the phenomenon that can be perceivable. To support or dispute any sociological theory, the relevant empirical data and information has to accompany the study. In this case, the study of religion involves forces that are generally unperceivable as it is a sacred, spiritual, and supernatural phenomenon. In addition, religion encompasses emotions and faith, which are incapable of measurement (Johnson 8). In this respect, many have argued that sociologists cannot study religion, as they cannot describe the unobservable (Johnson 7). However, according to Yinger, empirical investigation may not be capable of fully revealing the essence of religion. However, its participation to the study of religion has a great contribution to understanding religion. The argument of the church stained window supports the relevance of the empirical study of religion. To fully admire the beauty and understand the message on the church stained window it requires one to be inside the church. However, the view from the inside constitutes a fraction of what one can learn regarding the window. One can only appreciate the context of the exterior framework when he is outside. In addition, in studying the stained church window we may consider information that does not relate with viewing the window from the outside or from the inside. For example, we may consider the reasons for its installation and make comparisons with other windows of the same nature. It is therefore, important in the study of religion to consider the soci ology of religion as an avenue to help us understand religion (4). The sociology of religion involves answering questions of religion empirically has the effect of amplifying our understanding. In other words, sociology can be an additional tool to further our understanding to the study of religion. Rational choice theory The rational choice theory strives to provide an explanation regarding the purpose of religion in the society. The essence of the theory is not only centered on religion’s persistence but also deals with the observation of ubiquity of religion within different societies (Bellah 19). The rational choice theory entails that human beings make social, economic, and political choices through rationalization. They can also make rational religious choices. Rational choices come about in instances whereby a person chooses not to address his opinion in a group whereby everyone has an opposing opinion.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Rational Choice Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Johnson, constrains of human rationality are found within the extent of their understanding and the information they posses. In addition, human beings make rational choices based on their tastes and preferences. Rational choice theorists have introduced the aspect of supply and demand for purposes of understanding why people make certain choices that dictates their religious behavior. They argue that religion brings forth rewards and gains in which the religious people desire. For example, likeminded people fellowship together, provides emotional support to each other, and the promise of a brilliant life when one dies. However, the dynamics of demand and supply entail that for every reward or gain there is a cost. In this case, the cost comes in the form that one has to change his lifestyle to conform to what the religion dictates (37). In some instances, it may involve sacrificing one’s leisure time to take part in the religious group’s activities. According to Johnson, the rational choice theory does not strive to explain the origin of religion. The rational choice theory comes in to explain the reasons why people turn to the religious ideas and systems for answers, solutions, and protection (36). Yinger, Milton. The Scientific Study of Religion. New York: Macmillan, 1970. Print. Bellah, Robert. The Ritual Roots of Society and Culture, a Handbook of the Sociology of Religion. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003. Print. Johnstone, Ronald. Religion in Society, a Sociology of Religion. Pearson: Prentice-Hall, 2007. Print.

Midterm paper (proposal development) Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Midterm (proposal development) - Research Paper Example These elements are: (a) elevation the patient’s head of the bed between 30 and 45 degree unless medically contraindicated; (b) a daily sedation vacation and assessment of readiness to ‘extubate’ unless medically contraindicated; (c) peptic ulcer prophylaxis; (d) deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis; (e) use ‘chlorhexidine’ for oral care. The entire bundle was considered compliant only if all five items were compliant. A bundle was considered noncompliant if any item was not performed. The dependent variable for this literature review is reducing the incidence of Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia (VAP) rate among Intensive Care Unit ICU patient population. VAP is defined by pneumonia occurring more than 48 hours after patient have been ‘intubated’ and placed on mechanical ventilation (Koeman et al., 2006). The patients must have been free from any sign of pneumonia or chest infection in radiological images prior VAP development. The ventilator-a ssociated pneumonia (VAP) rate is defined as the number of ventilator-associated pneumonias per 1,000 ventilator days (Garcia et al., 2009). The independent variables are implementation of VAP bundle, developing oral care protocol using ‘chlorhexidine’, implementation of Nurse-implemented sedation protocol, and Staff training program on VAP bundle. All of these independent variables are considered intervention to improve healthcare providers’ compliance with VAP bundle and consequently, reduces the incidence of VAP. Oral care is defined by cleansing of oral cavity and oropharynx using cholrhxidine every 2-4 hours per as protocol (Koeman, et al, 2006). Active implementation is defined as providing various types of educational programs (in-service presentation, video, workshop) to all healthcare providers on VAP , VAP rate, VAP related-complications, and VAP preventative measures (VAP bundle) (Hawe, Ellis, Cairns, & Longmate, 2009). Nurse-implemented sedation proto col defines a strategy that guides a nurse in administering dosage, in this case, to ventilated patients based on their weight and level of consciousness by using Cambridge scale (Quenot et al., 2007) in order to prevent patients’ over sedation. There is abundant research showing that hospitals that implement the VAP Bundle significantly reduce the incidence of VAP. A quasi-experimental study of all adult patient who admitted to ICU and required mechanical ventilation from 2006-2008 , the sample size and sampling plan were not mentioned, revealed that VAP bundle reduces the incidence of VAP from 9.3 cases per 1000 ventilator day to 2.3 cases per 1000 ventilator day (p = .001) using Box-and-whisker plot. Furthermore, U chart revealed that the overall compliance with VAP increased from 20 percent to 82 percent (Al-Tawfiq & Abed, 2010). A quantitative randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled trial study of 385 consecutive random sampled adult ICU patients revealed that topic al oral decontamination with chlorhexidine reduces the incidence of VAP by 65 percent (p = 0.012) for chlorhexidne and 55 percent (p = 0.030) for chlorhexidine/cholistin using sequential survival analyses (Koeman et al., 2006). The qualitative study of a convenience sample of 10 registered nurses’ working in ICU, using content analysis, revealed that nurses’

The US Economy vs.International Economy Research Paper

The US Economy vs.International Economy - Research Paper Example The American central bank wants to keep its interest rates low (to almost zero) to spur the economy but Mr. Hoenig thinks otherwise. In contrast, the Australian economy has not suffered as greatly as the US during recent financial crisis because its economy is a bit insulated from the global economy. In fact, its big four banks are trying to hide their profits because the economy did relatively well last year. In addition, the big four banks are suspected of using accounting tricks to manage their earnings and show smaller profits than what they actually were (Potts, 2009, p. 1) because of possible political and social backlash. Moreover, the Australian authorities at its Reserve Bank are not planning to reduce its interest rates because the economy is doing better than expected. To put it another way, the need to reduce rates is not urgent because the recession was not as deep as it had originally feared. The Australian economy has recovered well enough their banks raise interest rates they pay on client deposits (Potts, 2010, p. 1). Its economy is forecast to grow by 3.5% next year and its currency has apprecia ted 20% against the US dollar since middle of the year (Rogow & Glynn, 2010, p. 1). Both economies are fully plugged to a global economy but Australia did not suffer from a housing crisis and demand for its resource exports is strong. Rogow, G. & Glynn, J. (2010, December 15). Australia Welcomes Oprah as Tourism Slumps. The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from

Effect of Export Performance on Economy

Effect of Export Performance on Economy CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION In this chapter, first we introduce the study by highlighting its background followed by a brief description of Malaysias economy and external trade based on relevant statistics related to economic growth trends and international trade, respectively. Next, we further proceed to look in detail at the export performance concept. Then, we indicate the current major products exported by Malaysian firms, and their main export destinations. Research problem, question, and objectives, followed by the significance, scope, limitations, and organization of the paper, are all discussed in the last part of the chapter. 1.1. Background of the Study With the increasing trend of globalization, the arena of market and competition for business firms has expanded from domestic markets to the international markets. This has accentuated the importance of understanding the behavior of firms in foreign markets. Exporting represents a viable strategic option for firms to internationalize and has remained the most frequently used foreign market entry mode chosen (Zhao Zou, 2002), as it provides the firm with the flexibility needed to penetrate and compete in new international markets. In 2001, the World Bank published the report Globalization, Growth and Poverty: Building an Inclusive World Economy. The report shows that 24 developing countries, which increased their integration into the world economy, achieved higher growth in incomes, longer life expectancy and better schooling (Van Dijk, 2002). Exporting is considered to be one of the most important ways for developing countries to link with the world economy. Therefore, it is identified by governments and public policy makers as a priority (Morgan, 1997). 1.1.1. Malaysias Economy and External Trade The Malaysian economy has shown to be one of the most dynamic economies in the Asia Pacific region. The structure of the Malaysian economy had a dramatic transformation in the last five decades. Gradually over this period, it has displayed attributes of newly industrialized country and its economy has shown an impressive track record (Hamid, 2004). The country had an impressive annual growth in the 1970s reaching 7.8%, and continued to grow at a rate of 8.8% in the 1980s except during recession in 1985 to 1986. The recovery started in 1988 and the economy sustained an annual growth of over 8% in the 1990s. However, the Asian financial crisis had the worst impact when the economy shrank by 11.2% year on year in the fourth quarter of 1998 (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009). This led the Malaysian government to implement several economic policy adjustments which started in 1999 in order to speed up the recovery. Consequently, the economy recorded a positive growth in seven consecutive years. After a strong take-off of 5.3% in 2003, the second half of 2006 recorded a higher than expected growth of 5.9% (Malaysia Economic Report , 2006). Recently, as a result of the global recession, Malaysias real GDP contracted by 6.2% year on year in the first quarter of 2009 (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009). However, the economy reco vered gradually later in the same year. Malaysias trade policy focuses on greater integration into the world economy and enhancing its global position as a trading nation. The country has consistently maintained its position as the 18th largest global exporter and the 20th largest importer in the last few years (WTO, 2005). Malaysias trade with the world from 2000 to 2009 is illustrated in figure 1. The bar chart shows that Malaysia had a steady increase in total trade. The country reached a peak of approximately RM787.5 billion and RM643.1 billion in 2009 for exports and imports respectively, yielding a trade surplus of RM144.4 billion. This trend is expected to continue in the next few years as more economic reforms would take place, coincided with high growth rates expected. 1.1.2. Export Performance Export performance is broadly defined as the outcome of a firms activities in export markets (Shoham, 1996). The fundamental importance of export performance to international marketing has led to a substantial body of research. It is recognized that research on export performance is of vital interest to three major groups: public policy makers, managers and researchers. First, export performance is important for public policy makers or governments as it contributes to the development of foreign exchange reserves, increases the level of imports a country can afford, provides a vehicle for job creation, improves employment opportunities, improves standards of living, and encourages better working conditions and more efficient business (Lages Montgomery, 2004). Second, at a micro level, managers view exporting as a way to expand their firms access to international markets, benefit from economies of scale, reduce the dependence on their domestic markets, and enjoy faster sales, employment, and growth (Freeman Lawley, 2005). Third, as a result of its importance for both policy makers and managers, researchers consider exporting a challenging and promising area for theory building in international marketing (Zou Stan, 1997). Since gaining independence from Britain in 1957, Malaysia implemented a series of 5-year development plans in order to transform its economy from being an exporter of rubber and tin to emerge as one of the worlds largest producers of palm oil products, timber, oil and manufactured products (Wheeler Mohamad, 1993). Additionally, due to its impressive growth, the manufacturing sector has replaced agriculture as the number one sector in the economy. Table 1 shows Malaysias major export products in January 2010. The manufacturing sector remains a dynamic engine of growth for Malaysia with an estimated share of 31.5% of GDP in 2005 (WTO, 2005). It is considered to be the most dominant sector with approximately three quarters of total exports. This is mainly due to the significant contribution of electrical and electronic products as they are Malaysias leading export earner with a value of RM21,372.3 billion, representing 40.75% of total exports in January 2010. Palm oil retained as the second largest export revenue earner with a total value of RM3,985 billion or 7.6% of exports. Third, liquefied natural gas (LNG) made up 6.5% of total exports with RM3,400.3 billion. Chemicals chemical products were the fourth largest commodity accounting for 6% of total exports with RM3,173.9 billion. The remaining different products Table 1: Malaysias major export products in January 2010 (Billion Ringgits) Source: Department of Statistics Malaysia, January 2010, Malaysia External Trade Statistics. Retrieved on 16/2/2010 from: http://www.matrade.gov.my/cms/documentstorage/com.tms.cms.document.Document_2c11596d-7f000010-584c584c-f259ef13/Press%20release%20Jan10%20Eng.pdfCalculated based on the values of the table. including crude petroleum, refined petroleum products, and others, formed approximately 40% of total exports in the same period. For export destinations, the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) was Malaysias major export market in January 2010, with RM7,094.9 billion (13.53% of total exports), as shown in table 2. Table 2: Malaysias major export markets in January 2010 (Billion Ringgits) Source: Department of Statistics Malaysia, January 2010, Malaysia External Trade Statistics. Retrieved on 16/2/2010 from: http://www.matrade.gov.my/cms/documentstorage/com.tms.cms.document.Document_2c11596d-7f000010-584c584c-f259ef13/Press%20release%20Jan10%20Eng.pdf Calculated based on the values of the table. The next major export destination is Singapore (13.26%, RM6,953.5 billion), followed by Japan (11.15%, RM5,849.7 billion), USA (9.37%, RM4,917.2 billion), and Hong Kong (5.5.%, RM 2,876.2 billion). These top five export destinations accounted for more than half of Malaysias total exports. The statistics reflect the increasing significance of exporting as a key economic tool for growth and development in Malaysia. In addition, despite the downturn caused by the Asian financial crisis thirteen years ago, Malaysia has made rapid strides in economic development through the continuous adoption of appropriate policies and strategies to ensure sustainability of growth (WTO, 2005) as well as to transform the economic structure of the country into a manufacturing and export-based economy. 1.2. Problem Statement, Question, and Objectives of the Study A problem is defined as any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal state (Cavana et al., 2007). It is critical that the problem of the study is unambiguously identified, and followed by a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question and objectives of the study. 1.2.1. Research Problem Much of the knowledge about successful export activity is fragmented, and the tradition of building on previous findings is not well-established in the export marketing field (Aaby Slater, 1989). Many export performance studies focused only on a single factor affecting export performance, while there have been only few attempts to come up with models that incorporate a wide range of relevant factors. These exceptions include, (Cooper Kleinschmidt, 1985); (Cavusgil Zou, 1994). Some of the discrepancies in the literature might be attributable to differences regarding the way in which export performance has been assessed (Walters Samiee, 1990). In this context, the vast majority of studies have utilized objective performance indicators (Katsikeas et al., 1996). However, there are two problems with the use of certain objective measures: First problem is concerned with research methodology i.e. accurate objective indicators of export performance are not easy to obtain since formal company financial statements and reports often make no clear distinction between domestic and export business operations, partially due to the fact that many firms view exporting as an extension of their domestic activities (Yang et al., 1992). Second, a serious comparability caveat may arise as a result of inherent measurement weaknesses underlying most objective measures (Katsikeas et al., 1996). Differences among industries and product subsectors in terms of competition or technology could lead to incoherent comparison across the sample firms. In other words, objective indicators of export performance, such as sales volume, sales growth and market share, might have little meaning in those cases where the firms surveyed belong to different industry or product groups (Covin, 1991). Accordingly, in order to fill this literature gap, it is important to use different indicators to measure the multi-dimensionality of export performance and increase the reliability of the results. In this research, we adopt three subjective indicators to measure export performance of Malaysian manufacturing firms by asking respondents three questions to indicate their perceptions in achieving objectives regarding export sales, export market share, and export profitability. We use this subjective composite indicator because, compared to other objective export indicators, it cancels the size effect and it also facilitates comparison between companies of different sizes and industries. 1.2.2. Research Question Are firms characteristics, export marketing strategy, management perceptions, and export commitment associated with export performance? If so, which of these contributes most to the variance of the dependant variable? 1.2.3. Research Objectives This study aims to contribute to the meager but growing literature on firm-level export performance for developing countries by using Malaysia as the empirical platform. The study was designed to reexamine some determinants of export performance mentioned in the export marketing literature, more specifically, certain firms characteristics, export marketing strategy adopted, managements attitudes and perceptions, and export commitment are integrated factors that viewed as significantly influencing export performance. In a nutshell, the study seeks to achieve the following two objectives: To investigate the relationships between export performance on one hand, and firm characteristics, export marketing strategy, management perceptions, and export commitment on the other hand. Establish the relative importance of each of the independent variables in influencing export performance of Malaysian manufacturing firms. 1.3. Significance, Scope, and Organization of the Study In the next few paragraphs, we address the approaches deployed in this paper that contribute to the significance of this research in the context of export marketing field. Further, the scope, limitations, and organization of the paper, are all discussed subsequently. 1.3.1. Significance of the Study With the increasing global business competition, it has become important, particularly for firms in developing countries, to understand the determinants of export performance as firms survival and expansion, and consequent economic growth of many developing countries are strongly dependent on a better understanding of what determines the export performance (Sousa et al., 2008). In spite of the numerous empirical studies of export performance published since the 1960s, the conclusions reached by researchers in this area have, however, varied widely. The significance of the present study is derived from its design to look anew at some determinants of export performance mentioned in the literature in order to examine their effect on export performance manufacturing firms in Malaysia where export marketing research is of extreme relevance for both practitioners and scholars, knowing that the country is considered to be the worlds eighteenth largest exporter, and the trend is growing significantly over time. For example, exports posted a double digit growth in December 2009, year-on-year, rising significantly by 18.7% to RM54.7 billion, compared with December 2008 (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2010). 1.3.2. Scope and Limitations of the Study The evidence reported in this paper should be interpreted in the light of several limitations. That is, in addition to the relatively low response rate of just 17%, the research effort was restricted to manufacturing firms within a specific country context, thus caution may be exercised in generalizing the present findings too broadly. Nonetheless, generalizations of the study findings may be applicable to those exporting frameworks with similar structural characteristics of export marketing. Furthermore, the cross-sectional nature of the data limits our ability to rule out cause-effect inferences (Katsikeas et al., 1996). Such one-shot study may not be suitable for a research that involves a dynamic phenomenon, therefore, the adoption of longitudinal studies in future studies can provide more insights into the dynamic aspects of export behavior and performance. Other limitations were related to time constraint, specifically during data collection period which started in mid-February 2010. This stage of the research was coincided with celebrations of the Chinese New Year, on February 14th, the period during which most companies in Malaysia had at least a one week holiday. As a result, it took us a relatively longer time than expected to receive responds in order to proceed for further analysis. 1.3.3. Organization of the Study In this study, an attempt is made to synthesize and empirically test a model of export performance focusing on exporters from an ASEAN member. Specifically, the sudsy constitutes indigenous Malaysian manufacturers trading with overseas distributors. The paper is formatted into several sections. First, an in-depth literature is presented including key theoretical and measurement problems. Next, a conceptual framework of export performance is developed through the statement of several hypotheses. Then, the research design approach and methodological procedures including data analysis are described. Lastly, we present the findings of the study followed by a discussion, conclusions, and recommendations. Summary of Chapter One Through its external trade policy, Malaysia aims primarily for a greater integration into the world economy in order to maintain its position as one of the largest global exporters, specifically exports of manufactured products. At a micro level, export performance refers to the outcome of a firms activities in export markets. It is a way to expand access to international markets, benefit from economies of scale, reduce the dependence on domestic markets, and enjoy faster sales, employment, and growth. Studies within the export marketing field are characterized by the discrepancy and fragmentation of the findings. In this context, most export performance studies utilized objective export performance measures. However, this might result in the fragmentation of findings due to some issues related to research methodology and comparability caveat among firms. Therefore, subjective indicators are employed to measure the dimensionality of export performance in the Malaysian context. The objective is delineate the relationship between export performance (dependent variable) on one hand, and firm characteristics, export marketing strategy, management perceptions, and export commitment (independent variables) on the other hand. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW In this chapter, a conceptual background of export performance is coherently addressed; starting with a relevant review of the export marketing performance literature and their main characteristics including the way in which export performance has been measured. We further proceed to identify and classify the multiple independent variables that have been frequently used in past studies. At the end of the chapter, some examples of the discrepancies in the findings of some studies are highlighted. 2.1. Export Marketing Performance Literature The classical economic view tries to explain why it is beneficial for a country to engage in international trade based on the assumption that countries differ in their abilities to produce goods efficiently. The comparative advantage theory, for example, helps to explain the pattern of international trade that we observe in the world economy (Heckscher Ohlin, 1991); (Ricardo, 1817); and (Smith, 1776). However, the assumptions underlying the principle of comparative advantage are unrealistic in many countries and industries. That is because competitive advantage depends on the capacity to innovate and upgrade. It also depends on the extent to which a home environment is dynamic, challenging, and forward looking. Therefore, competitive advantage is not inherited; in other words, it does not grow out of a countrys natural endowments, its labor, its interest rates or its currencys value, as classical economics insist (Porter, 1990). A plethora of studies have been published in the past 30 years on the determinants of export performance. This is mainly due to the increasing relevance of export marketing as an area of inquiry. Existing literature shows that the United States is the most researched country in export performance studies. However, an increasing number of studies have been conducted by European researchers from non-English-speaking countries who published in English-language journals. Examples include, (Bijmolt Zwart, 1994), (Holzmuller Kasper, 1991), and (Madsen, 1989). Some other studies have also been conducted in developing countries in Asia and Latin America. Characteristics of the studies reviewed are summarized in table 3. The main characteristics that we focused on are: 2.1.1. Size of the Sample Except for one study which used a data base of 20,161 Indonesian firms from different manufacturing sectors, the size of the samples used in the studies reviewed ranges between 51 and 783. Most of them were drawn from multiple manufacturing industries, while just few such as (Cavusgil Kirpalani, 1993), (Singer Czinkota, 1994), and (Sriram Manu, 1995), had included in the sampling, reselling and service firms in addition to manufacturing firms. 2.1.2. Industry Context of Studies The vast majority of the reviewed studies employed samples drawn from multiple manufacturing industries. Only few have included in addition to manufacturers, reselling and service firms. Examples include (Cavusgil Kirpalani, 1993), (Singer Czinkota, 1994), and (Sriram Manu, 1995). This reflects the importance of manufacturing firms in the world economy. However, findings cannot be generalized to other industry contexts. Table 3: Characteristics of the reviewed articles Solberg 2002 Norway 150 mult manuf SML survey correlation/ anova firm Albaum, Tse 2001 Hong Kong 183 mult manuf SML survey regression firm Gencturk, Kotabe 2001 USA 162 mult manuf SML survey anova firm Effect of Export Performance on Economy Effect of Export Performance on Economy CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION In this chapter, first we introduce the study by highlighting its background followed by a brief description of Malaysias economy and external trade based on relevant statistics related to economic growth trends and international trade, respectively. Next, we further proceed to look in detail at the export performance concept. Then, we indicate the current major products exported by Malaysian firms, and their main export destinations. Research problem, question, and objectives, followed by the significance, scope, limitations, and organization of the paper, are all discussed in the last part of the chapter. 1.1. Background of the Study With the increasing trend of globalization, the arena of market and competition for business firms has expanded from domestic markets to the international markets. This has accentuated the importance of understanding the behavior of firms in foreign markets. Exporting represents a viable strategic option for firms to internationalize and has remained the most frequently used foreign market entry mode chosen (Zhao Zou, 2002), as it provides the firm with the flexibility needed to penetrate and compete in new international markets. In 2001, the World Bank published the report Globalization, Growth and Poverty: Building an Inclusive World Economy. The report shows that 24 developing countries, which increased their integration into the world economy, achieved higher growth in incomes, longer life expectancy and better schooling (Van Dijk, 2002). Exporting is considered to be one of the most important ways for developing countries to link with the world economy. Therefore, it is identified by governments and public policy makers as a priority (Morgan, 1997). 1.1.1. Malaysias Economy and External Trade The Malaysian economy has shown to be one of the most dynamic economies in the Asia Pacific region. The structure of the Malaysian economy had a dramatic transformation in the last five decades. Gradually over this period, it has displayed attributes of newly industrialized country and its economy has shown an impressive track record (Hamid, 2004). The country had an impressive annual growth in the 1970s reaching 7.8%, and continued to grow at a rate of 8.8% in the 1980s except during recession in 1985 to 1986. The recovery started in 1988 and the economy sustained an annual growth of over 8% in the 1990s. However, the Asian financial crisis had the worst impact when the economy shrank by 11.2% year on year in the fourth quarter of 1998 (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009). This led the Malaysian government to implement several economic policy adjustments which started in 1999 in order to speed up the recovery. Consequently, the economy recorded a positive growth in seven consecutive years. After a strong take-off of 5.3% in 2003, the second half of 2006 recorded a higher than expected growth of 5.9% (Malaysia Economic Report , 2006). Recently, as a result of the global recession, Malaysias real GDP contracted by 6.2% year on year in the first quarter of 2009 (The Economist Intelligence Unit, 2009). However, the economy reco vered gradually later in the same year. Malaysias trade policy focuses on greater integration into the world economy and enhancing its global position as a trading nation. The country has consistently maintained its position as the 18th largest global exporter and the 20th largest importer in the last few years (WTO, 2005). Malaysias trade with the world from 2000 to 2009 is illustrated in figure 1. The bar chart shows that Malaysia had a steady increase in total trade. The country reached a peak of approximately RM787.5 billion and RM643.1 billion in 2009 for exports and imports respectively, yielding a trade surplus of RM144.4 billion. This trend is expected to continue in the next few years as more economic reforms would take place, coincided with high growth rates expected. 1.1.2. Export Performance Export performance is broadly defined as the outcome of a firms activities in export markets (Shoham, 1996). The fundamental importance of export performance to international marketing has led to a substantial body of research. It is recognized that research on export performance is of vital interest to three major groups: public policy makers, managers and researchers. First, export performance is important for public policy makers or governments as it contributes to the development of foreign exchange reserves, increases the level of imports a country can afford, provides a vehicle for job creation, improves employment opportunities, improves standards of living, and encourages better working conditions and more efficient business (Lages Montgomery, 2004). Second, at a micro level, managers view exporting as a way to expand their firms access to international markets, benefit from economies of scale, reduce the dependence on their domestic markets, and enjoy faster sales, employment, and growth (Freeman Lawley, 2005). Third, as a result of its importance for both policy makers and managers, researchers consider exporting a challenging and promising area for theory building in international marketing (Zou Stan, 1997). Since gaining independence from Britain in 1957, Malaysia implemented a series of 5-year development plans in order to transform its economy from being an exporter of rubber and tin to emerge as one of the worlds largest producers of palm oil products, timber, oil and manufactured products (Wheeler Mohamad, 1993). Additionally, due to its impressive growth, the manufacturing sector has replaced agriculture as the number one sector in the economy. Table 1 shows Malaysias major export products in January 2010. The manufacturing sector remains a dynamic engine of growth for Malaysia with an estimated share of 31.5% of GDP in 2005 (WTO, 2005). It is considered to be the most dominant sector with approximately three quarters of total exports. This is mainly due to the significant contribution of electrical and electronic products as they are Malaysias leading export earner with a value of RM21,372.3 billion, representing 40.75% of total exports in January 2010. Palm oil retained as the second largest export revenue earner with a total value of RM3,985 billion or 7.6% of exports. Third, liquefied natural gas (LNG) made up 6.5% of total exports with RM3,400.3 billion. Chemicals chemical products were the fourth largest commodity accounting for 6% of total exports with RM3,173.9 billion. The remaining different products Table 1: Malaysias major export products in January 2010 (Billion Ringgits) Source: Department of Statistics Malaysia, January 2010, Malaysia External Trade Statistics. Retrieved on 16/2/2010 from: http://www.matrade.gov.my/cms/documentstorage/com.tms.cms.document.Document_2c11596d-7f000010-584c584c-f259ef13/Press%20release%20Jan10%20Eng.pdfCalculated based on the values of the table. including crude petroleum, refined petroleum products, and others, formed approximately 40% of total exports in the same period. For export destinations, the Peoples Republic of China (PRC) was Malaysias major export market in January 2010, with RM7,094.9 billion (13.53% of total exports), as shown in table 2. Table 2: Malaysias major export markets in January 2010 (Billion Ringgits) Source: Department of Statistics Malaysia, January 2010, Malaysia External Trade Statistics. Retrieved on 16/2/2010 from: http://www.matrade.gov.my/cms/documentstorage/com.tms.cms.document.Document_2c11596d-7f000010-584c584c-f259ef13/Press%20release%20Jan10%20Eng.pdf Calculated based on the values of the table. The next major export destination is Singapore (13.26%, RM6,953.5 billion), followed by Japan (11.15%, RM5,849.7 billion), USA (9.37%, RM4,917.2 billion), and Hong Kong (5.5.%, RM 2,876.2 billion). These top five export destinations accounted for more than half of Malaysias total exports. The statistics reflect the increasing significance of exporting as a key economic tool for growth and development in Malaysia. In addition, despite the downturn caused by the Asian financial crisis thirteen years ago, Malaysia has made rapid strides in economic development through the continuous adoption of appropriate policies and strategies to ensure sustainability of growth (WTO, 2005) as well as to transform the economic structure of the country into a manufacturing and export-based economy. 1.2. Problem Statement, Question, and Objectives of the Study A problem is defined as any situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired ideal state (Cavana et al., 2007). It is critical that the problem of the study is unambiguously identified, and followed by a clear, precise, and succinct statement of the question and objectives of the study. 1.2.1. Research Problem Much of the knowledge about successful export activity is fragmented, and the tradition of building on previous findings is not well-established in the export marketing field (Aaby Slater, 1989). Many export performance studies focused only on a single factor affecting export performance, while there have been only few attempts to come up with models that incorporate a wide range of relevant factors. These exceptions include, (Cooper Kleinschmidt, 1985); (Cavusgil Zou, 1994). Some of the discrepancies in the literature might be attributable to differences regarding the way in which export performance has been assessed (Walters Samiee, 1990). In this context, the vast majority of studies have utilized objective performance indicators (Katsikeas et al., 1996). However, there are two problems with the use of certain objective measures: First problem is concerned with research methodology i.e. accurate objective indicators of export performance are not easy to obtain since formal company financial statements and reports often make no clear distinction between domestic and export business operations, partially due to the fact that many firms view exporting as an extension of their domestic activities (Yang et al., 1992). Second, a serious comparability caveat may arise as a result of inherent measurement weaknesses underlying most objective measures (Katsikeas et al., 1996). Differences among industries and product subsectors in terms of competition or technology could lead to incoherent comparison across the sample firms. In other words, objective indicators of export performance, such as sales volume, sales growth and market share, might have little meaning in those cases where the firms surveyed belong to different industry or product groups (Covin, 1991). Accordingly, in order to fill this literature gap, it is important to use different indicators to measure the multi-dimensionality of export performance and increase the reliability of the results. In this research, we adopt three subjective indicators to measure export performance of Malaysian manufacturing firms by asking respondents three questions to indicate their perceptions in achieving objectives regarding export sales, export market share, and export profitability. We use this subjective composite indicator because, compared to other objective export indicators, it cancels the size effect and it also facilitates comparison between companies of different sizes and industries. 1.2.2. Research Question Are firms characteristics, export marketing strategy, management perceptions, and export commitment associated with export performance? If so, which of these contributes most to the variance of the dependant variable? 1.2.3. Research Objectives This study aims to contribute to the meager but growing literature on firm-level export performance for developing countries by using Malaysia as the empirical platform. The study was designed to reexamine some determinants of export performance mentioned in the export marketing literature, more specifically, certain firms characteristics, export marketing strategy adopted, managements attitudes and perceptions, and export commitment are integrated factors that viewed as significantly influencing export performance. In a nutshell, the study seeks to achieve the following two objectives: To investigate the relationships between export performance on one hand, and firm characteristics, export marketing strategy, management perceptions, and export commitment on the other hand. Establish the relative importance of each of the independent variables in influencing export performance of Malaysian manufacturing firms. 1.3. Significance, Scope, and Organization of the Study In the next few paragraphs, we address the approaches deployed in this paper that contribute to the significance of this research in the context of export marketing field. Further, the scope, limitations, and organization of the paper, are all discussed subsequently. 1.3.1. Significance of the Study With the increasing global business competition, it has become important, particularly for firms in developing countries, to understand the determinants of export performance as firms survival and expansion, and consequent economic growth of many developing countries are strongly dependent on a better understanding of what determines the export performance (Sousa et al., 2008). In spite of the numerous empirical studies of export performance published since the 1960s, the conclusions reached by researchers in this area have, however, varied widely. The significance of the present study is derived from its design to look anew at some determinants of export performance mentioned in the literature in order to examine their effect on export performance manufacturing firms in Malaysia where export marketing research is of extreme relevance for both practitioners and scholars, knowing that the country is considered to be the worlds eighteenth largest exporter, and the trend is growing significantly over time. For example, exports posted a double digit growth in December 2009, year-on-year, rising significantly by 18.7% to RM54.7 billion, compared with December 2008 (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2010). 1.3.2. Scope and Limitations of the Study The evidence reported in this paper should be interpreted in the light of several limitations. That is, in addition to the relatively low response rate of just 17%, the research effort was restricted to manufacturing firms within a specific country context, thus caution may be exercised in generalizing the present findings too broadly. Nonetheless, generalizations of the study findings may be applicable to those exporting frameworks with similar structural characteristics of export marketing. Furthermore, the cross-sectional nature of the data limits our ability to rule out cause-effect inferences (Katsikeas et al., 1996). Such one-shot study may not be suitable for a research that involves a dynamic phenomenon, therefore, the adoption of longitudinal studies in future studies can provide more insights into the dynamic aspects of export behavior and performance. Other limitations were related to time constraint, specifically during data collection period which started in mid-February 2010. This stage of the research was coincided with celebrations of the Chinese New Year, on February 14th, the period during which most companies in Malaysia had at least a one week holiday. As a result, it took us a relatively longer time than expected to receive responds in order to proceed for further analysis. 1.3.3. Organization of the Study In this study, an attempt is made to synthesize and empirically test a model of export performance focusing on exporters from an ASEAN member. Specifically, the sudsy constitutes indigenous Malaysian manufacturers trading with overseas distributors. The paper is formatted into several sections. First, an in-depth literature is presented including key theoretical and measurement problems. Next, a conceptual framework of export performance is developed through the statement of several hypotheses. Then, the research design approach and methodological procedures including data analysis are described. Lastly, we present the findings of the study followed by a discussion, conclusions, and recommendations. Summary of Chapter One Through its external trade policy, Malaysia aims primarily for a greater integration into the world economy in order to maintain its position as one of the largest global exporters, specifically exports of manufactured products. At a micro level, export performance refers to the outcome of a firms activities in export markets. It is a way to expand access to international markets, benefit from economies of scale, reduce the dependence on domestic markets, and enjoy faster sales, employment, and growth. Studies within the export marketing field are characterized by the discrepancy and fragmentation of the findings. In this context, most export performance studies utilized objective export performance measures. However, this might result in the fragmentation of findings due to some issues related to research methodology and comparability caveat among firms. Therefore, subjective indicators are employed to measure the dimensionality of export performance in the Malaysian context. The objective is delineate the relationship between export performance (dependent variable) on one hand, and firm characteristics, export marketing strategy, management perceptions, and export commitment (independent variables) on the other hand. CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW In this chapter, a conceptual background of export performance is coherently addressed; starting with a relevant review of the export marketing performance literature and their main characteristics including the way in which export performance has been measured. We further proceed to identify and classify the multiple independent variables that have been frequently used in past studies. At the end of the chapter, some examples of the discrepancies in the findings of some studies are highlighted. 2.1. Export Marketing Performance Literature The classical economic view tries to explain why it is beneficial for a country to engage in international trade based on the assumption that countries differ in their abilities to produce goods efficiently. The comparative advantage theory, for example, helps to explain the pattern of international trade that we observe in the world economy (Heckscher Ohlin, 1991); (Ricardo, 1817); and (Smith, 1776). However, the assumptions underlying the principle of comparative advantage are unrealistic in many countries and industries. That is because competitive advantage depends on the capacity to innovate and upgrade. It also depends on the extent to which a home environment is dynamic, challenging, and forward looking. Therefore, competitive advantage is not inherited; in other words, it does not grow out of a countrys natural endowments, its labor, its interest rates or its currencys value, as classical economics insist (Porter, 1990). A plethora of studies have been published in the past 30 years on the determinants of export performance. This is mainly due to the increasing relevance of export marketing as an area of inquiry. Existing literature shows that the United States is the most researched country in export performance studies. However, an increasing number of studies have been conducted by European researchers from non-English-speaking countries who published in English-language journals. Examples include, (Bijmolt Zwart, 1994), (Holzmuller Kasper, 1991), and (Madsen, 1989). Some other studies have also been conducted in developing countries in Asia and Latin America. Characteristics of the studies reviewed are summarized in table 3. The main characteristics that we focused on are: 2.1.1. Size of the Sample Except for one study which used a data base of 20,161 Indonesian firms from different manufacturing sectors, the size of the samples used in the studies reviewed ranges between 51 and 783. Most of them were drawn from multiple manufacturing industries, while just few such as (Cavusgil Kirpalani, 1993), (Singer Czinkota, 1994), and (Sriram Manu, 1995), had included in the sampling, reselling and service firms in addition to manufacturing firms. 2.1.2. Industry Context of Studies The vast majority of the reviewed studies employed samples drawn from multiple manufacturing industries. Only few have included in addition to manufacturers, reselling and service firms. Examples include (Cavusgil Kirpalani, 1993), (Singer Czinkota, 1994), and (Sriram Manu, 1995). This reflects the importance of manufacturing firms in the world economy. However, findings cannot be generalized to other industry contexts. Table 3: Characteristics of the reviewed articles Solberg 2002 Norway 150 mult manuf SML survey correlation/ anova firm Albaum, Tse 2001 Hong Kong 183 mult manuf SML survey regression firm Gencturk, Kotabe 2001 USA 162 mult manuf SML survey anova firm