Case summary and examination of Obstetrics Posting

Case synopsis and assessment of Obstetrics Posting Madam NTR is a 34 years of age Malay woman with gravida 4 and equality 3, as of now at 37 weeks of growths. She was conceded on 21st Nov 2010 at gestational age of 30 weeks and 1 day, because of referral from Health Clinic Sendayan taking into account placenta previa dependent on ultrasound discoveries during a routine antenatal visit. Her evaluated date of conveyance was on twentieth Jan 2011. She was asymptomatic without any grumblings of per vaginal dying, compression torment, spilling alcohol or show. Fetal developments were felt and were not decreased. She has no history of placenta previa in her past pregnancies. The main day of her last ordinary menstrual period was on fifteenth Apr 2010. This was a sudden pregnancy yet both her and her better half needed it. She speculated she was pregnant when she missed her menses for about a month. She affirmed her pregnancy after pee pregnancy test done in a private center yielded positive outcome. Booking was done in Maternal and Child H ealth Clinic Gadong at about four months of growth and the dating filter at about four months uncovered boundaries comparing to date. Nonetheless, placenta was noted to be low lying during that check. All through her routine antenatal visits, she was normotensive, not iron deficient and didn't have diabetes mellitus. HIV and VDRL test were negative. Her blood bunch type is O Rh Dâ positive. This is her fourth pregnancy. Her third pregnancy was in the time of 2007. She conveyed a full term infant kid with birth weight of 2.6 kg through cesarean conveyance because of breech introduction in Hospital Tuanku Jaafar Seremban. She conveyed her initial two youngsters who are the two guys in the time of 2004 and 2005 through unconstrained vaginal conveyance, with birth weight of 4.26kg and 2.6kg individually. There was no history of shoulder dystocia. Every one of her kids were brought into the world fit as a fiddle. Antenatal, natal and postnatal for every past pregnancy were uneventful. S he achieved menarche at 12 years old. It is normal at 28 to 30 days cycle with term of 5 to 7 days. There was neither dysmenorrhea nor menorrhagia. She rehearsed sex interuptus as preventative measure. She never had any PAP smear done already. Past careful, clinical and medicate history were unremarkable. Family ancestry was unremarkable. She and her significant other are hitched for a long time. They are remaining along with their three youngsters in Gadong Jaya Village. She is a housewife. She neither smokes nor drinks liquor. Then again, her significant other fills in as a development laborer. He is a smoker yet not alcoholic. Family salary is roughly RM2000 every month which is scarcely satisfactory for their living. Physical assessment: Madam NTR was alert, cognizant and open. She was not in torment or respiratory pain. Her tallness and weight are 165cm and 76kg individually. Her circulatory strain was 110/80 mmHg; beat rate was 86 beats for each moment of customary cadence and solid volume; temperature was 37â ° C; respiratory rate was 19 breaths for every moment. Every essential sign were inside ordinary range. Upon general assessment, there was no conjunctival paleness, sclera jaundice, palmar erythema or fringe cyanosis. Thyroid organs were not obvious and bosom assessment was unremarkable. There was reciprocal pedal edema up to mid-shin. Cardiopulmonary assessment was unremarkable.

Stability Testing of Nifedeipine

Security Testing of Nifedeipine Syed Masood Hassan Akbari Down to earth 2 Stability investigation of Nifedipine Presentation Nifedipine is considered as a model compound of the dihydropyridine class of calcium channel adversaries. Nifedipine is a particular blood vessel dilator, and furthermore is utilized in the treatment of hypertension, angina and cardiovascular issue. The disadvantage related with nifedipine is that it can experience photograph corruption in this manner raising in loss of pharmacological action. This procedure includes the decrease of the sweet-smelling nitro gathering to nitroso gathering or the oxidation of the dihydropyridine ring to a pyridine ring. Nifedipine synthesizers utilize light safe covering to diminish their photograph corruption. It has been discovered that because of poor stockpiling conditions the clinical adequacy of nifedipine can drop radically. So as to fix this a determination of fixings inside the measurements structure can be adjusted or improved so as to limit photosensitivity. Particle trade dabs are strong and appropriately are high sub-atomic weight polyelec trolytes that can without much of a stretch trade their portable particles of equivalent accuse of neighboring medium reversibly. The particle trade dot can frame a complex with nifedipine and its utility used to grasp sedate in light natures. Precariousness of the medication item may prompt a decrease in the bioavailability of the medication. It is likewise profoundly significant that the patients do get their uniform does of the medication all through the entire of the timeframe of realistic usability of the item. This trial experiences the photodecomposition energy of nifedipine at zero-request when the response begins. As the response continues further to half the energy of the response changes to first-arrange. Figure 1: Represents nifedipine debasement at the two unique frequencies appeared previously. This investigation comprised of 3 principle segments: Deciding the strength of nifedipine utilizing HPLC at different time interims. Assessing the half-life for the vanishing drug. Inspecting the overall soundness of the medication as powder and in arrangement. Test For HPLC 20mg of nifedipine was weighed out and set in a 100ml volumetric carafe utilizing the portable stage to top up the jar. The subsequent arrangements colouration was noted and moved to a measuring glass and secured with paraffin. A little inclusion was made to take up 2ml of the arrangement into an infusion utilizing a 0.2â µm channel. The time was noted and the example was stacked and run quickly and the measuring utencil was secured with paraffin and put on an edge where daylight was available and after each 15 min interims the example was infused into the mechanical assembly and it was run. After each run was completed the pinnacle territory for every one of the runs were recorded. For security in strong structure 100mg of the strong example of nifedipine was weighed out in a gauging pontoon and spread out equally and put on a window sill with legitimate Irish daylight for a term of 2 hours. The appearance was noted when the time slipped by. The strong example was then homogenized and 20mg was taken and set in a 100ml volumetric jar and made sufficient with the versatile stage. Straight away 2ml arrangement was taken and put on a 0.2â µm channel and was prepared for infusion. The pinnacle region of the strong example was recorded in the report. RESULTS CONCLUSIONS Assurance of the security of nifedipine strong and fluid examples with daylight. Table 1: Shows the nifedipine run time with brief interims, the strong structure and an UV test. The delineations underneath show the HPLC tops at different time interims with their maintenance times, top zone and statures. Figure 2: Depicts nifedipine at T0. Figure 3: Depicts nifedipine at T20. Figure 4: Depicts nifedipine at T35. Figure 5: Depicts nifedipine at T50. Figure 6: Depicts nifedipine at T65. Figure 7: Depicts nifedipine at T80. Figure 8: Depicts nifedipine at T95. Figure 9: Represents the pinnacle region plotted against time of nifedipine corruption taken at brief interims. In the wake of doing the examination it tends to be said taking a gander at the information that the response energy are of zero request at any rate from T0-T80. At T95 it is seen that the pinnacle gets somewhat expansive it can show that another pinnacle is beginning to shape, it the analysis had proceeded for in any event 45 minutes all the more then it could have been the beginning of the primary request response energy. In this way it tends to be reasoned that as per the information achieved the response energy are still at zero request during information obtaining. From the diagram utilizing the condition: y = a + bx b = slant = - 12046.1 +/ - 841.833 The half-existence of nifedipine was discovered utilizing the condition: As we were managing zero request energy thus, r = k Utilizing, t1/2 = In(2)/k t1/2 = 0.693/0.988 t1/2 = 0.701 As per the information accumulated it is seen that the strong example of nifedipine looks like to the first T0 fluid example. By this perception an individual can say that the strong state test didn't give any indications of debasement after the 2 hour window. The shade of the fluid examples were changing from yellow at T0 to black out yellow at T80. Then again for the strong example from the light yellow powder after the 2 hour window a layer of dull yellow powder was seen and the powder was blended around and it was seen the basic strong particles despite everything held a similar shade of light yellow. As indicated by the UV information at T0 and Ɔºmax of 334 it produced an absorbance of 0.604. Though for the T100 with a Ɔºmax of 279 produced an absorbance of 1.064. QUESTIONS Remark on the overall photostability of strong and arrangement nifedipine in light. The strong example of nifedipine subsequent to being open to 2 hours of Irish daylight visual perception indicated a darker shading change from light yellow to a darker yet when the powder was blended the basic layer was of a similar light colouration as it began with. Also, after the 2 hours window the HPLC result demonstrated no corruption by any means. This could be because of the down to earth being completed in entryways and the absence of the photons getting to the strong example. Then again in the fluid example things were very little better from a yellow arrangement beginning at T0 †T80 there was no shading change yet in the wake of playing out the following HPLC the shading had gone swoon yellow. On the off chance that the mechanical assembly would have been given brief more the outcomes accomplished would be of first request energy. As it stands it is zero request energy. What sort of response is the nifedipine deterioration? Decrease What other decay responses do you figure nifedipine may experience? Oxidation What are the ramifications of your perceptions for the best possible dealing with and capacity of nifedipine? Makers of nifedipine items utilize light safe covering or pressing to limit their photodegradation. Long haul introduction to daylight or counterfeit light may likewise happen if nifedipine plans are improperly put away by patients. Poor stockpiling conditions may possibly diminish clinical viability of nifedipine. What approval do you think may be significant in the sort of investigation you performed today? â€Å"Validation of a diagnostic technique is the procedure that builds up by research center investigations, that the presentation attributes of the strategy meet the necessities for the proposed systematic applications.† The ordinary diagnostic attributes utilized in strategy approval differ however the significant one for this test is steadiness, framework reasonableness and framework affectability. â€Å"Prepared test/standard steadiness is characterized as the capacity of the analyte to stay stable in the diluent at the test focus determined in the systematic method.† Framework reasonableness testing is a vital piece of numerous investigative techniques. The tests depend on the idea that the examples to be examined establish a vital framework that can be assessed all things considered. Framework reasonableness is controlled by different strategies. Any one or a mix of the next might be composed into the strategy as important for utilizing the technique for routine post approval: Goals guarantees that intently eluting mixes are settled from one another and builds up the settling intensity of the framework. It contains as close as is conceivable to a total example lattice. At last limit factor is a proportion of the time the solute spends in the fixed stage comparative with the time it spends in the versatile stage.

Prof. Catherine DIgnazio on Urban Science for Public Good

Prof. Catherine DIgnazio on Urban Science for Public Good One of the strange things about being 10,000 years old is that, while Ive been tooling away judging teens, some of my classmates/labmates from when I was in my masters program have gone on to build careers in academia. Some are even professors! And, as of this term, one of them, Catherine DIgnazio, is even a professor at MIT! Oh god Im old.   Earlier today, Catherine circulated an announcement (and syllabus) for a new class she is teaching this term that I thought sounded totally rad: 11.S01 â€" 3 credits Urban Science for Public Good: Gender and Racial Equity in Artificial Intelligence Meets Mon 1:30 3pm First-year Discovery class Gender and racial equity are often central goals of urban planning. But what are gender and race? What happens when we start to measure and model these dimensions of identity? Conversely, what happens when we ignore gender and race in urban computation? This course introduces students to some of the leading scientists, theorists and practitioners who are working to challenge bias in AI and to use data and computation to work towards gender and racial equity in cities. Along the way, we will reflect on our own identities and learn critical concepts to navigate gender and race from fields such as Urban Planning, Womens Gender Studies, Critical Race Studies, and Computer Science. I know from reading applications that a lot of prospective MIT students are interested in how to use/change technology to make the world less awful, and Catherine is one of the central faculty members involved in building out a new major (and affiliated lab) where that is a central object of concern contemporaneous with the new College of Computing. So I thought Id ask her a few questions over email about who she is, what shes doing, and how people at/aspiring to MIT can stay informed. Who are you?   Im a new faculty at MIT in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning. My somewhat untraditional background is in software development, art/design and civic media. I graduated from the Media Lab/Center for Civic Media back in 2014 and have been thinking about how we can use data and technology for social good for some time. I also have a new book coming out called Data Feminism where Lauren Klein and I try to outline what a feminist approach to data science looks like. Spoiler alert: its not (only) about women and not (only) for women because it takes more than one gender to build a just and fair world.   How would you describe what and how you hope to teach (in this class and generally at MIT)? I like building things and making things, and Im very excited to be back at MIT where so many incredible things are built and made. Im also thrilled to be part of DUSPs new urban science major (Course 11-6) that we are doing in collaboration with Course 6. At the same time, I embrace ideas of participatory design and co-design where you involve communities in the making process. I see this as essential if we are going to build technologies that truly serve the public. So collaboration and participation is a part of all of the classes, where we often work with different outside groups. For example, in my spring course called the Crowd Sourced City we are collaborating with the Cambridge Historical Commission, Boston Public Library and the Geochicas, a feminist activist collective out of Latin America. How do we use data and technology to create more equitable, livable and healthy cities? Thats a question we have to answer through building technology AND building relationships. What are three books, papers, or other media that high school students interested in this field should read? OK I have to say Data Feminism. Other great starting points are Cathy ONeils Weapons of Math Destruction, ProPublicas story on Machine Bias, Joy Buolamwinis video AI, Aint I a Woman?. These start to point out some of the places where we are reproducing structural bias in data and AI, which is a huge risk for those of us who aspire to do good with data science. They also point towards the values, methods and tools we can adopt for us to start to do better. Anything else that you want to say? Im starting a new lab called the Data + Feminism Lab so I would welcome folks to our public mailing list to stay up to date on guest speakers, job opportunities and other activities that well post periodically. And just generally, feel free to get in touch with me and tell me about any interesting things happening around the community. I feel like I continue to discover new groups and spaces every day. And I need to learn the tunnels Hope you found this compelling and check out the syllabus and recommended readings so you can follow along at home!

Potential Risk to an Organisation of Committing to an...

I am going to be explaining the potential risk to an organisation of committing to an E-commerce system. E-commerce has many drawbacks. I will be going through these drawbacks that risk an organisation of committing to an E-commerce system. * Advertising and maintaining website * Hackers * Identity theft * Website not being recognised * Viruses * Profit * Delivery Advertising and maintaining website A drawback of an Ecommerce is the advertising. If no-one knows it exists it will not generate any revenue. Of course the most effective way of advertising your online business is through the word of mouth, so you need to build a customer base for your business. Maintaining website is important. Customers want†¦show more content†¦Delivery Delivery can be a huge drawback when committing to Ecommerce. These could be your packages can be left on your doorstep this can cause someone to steal your purchase or probably damaged. Packages can be delivered at unpredictable times during working hours. Which then you have to wait another 2 days to either receive the product or you have to travel yourself to get your item. Another potential risk to an organisation of committing to an E-commerce is that they delay goods. E-commerce website delivery takes a lot longer to get the goods into your hands. Viruses Viruses can do a multitude of things. Many viruses, which disguise themselves as tracking cookies, are meant to allow access to personal information that you give out over the internet. If you are shopping and this happens, it can be used for identity theft. Viruses can also slow down your computer significantly, destroy vital data, erase information amp; even shut down your computer. Your browser is executing code all the time. When it downloads web pages, that code is downloading and displaying arbitrary data, pixels, character’s, etc. Since code is data, if your browser tries to execute the data it might actually run. When a website has a virus find them using anti-virus as anti-virus uses a signature string to locate them. When your website has a virus even when you try to access it from different computers and different servers it will have a strange homepage and the newsShow MoreRelatedP1 Describe The Technologies Required For E Commerce1664 Words   |  7 Pages Assignment 1 Client information P1 Describe the technologies required for e-commerce The technologies required for an e-commerce are as follows: server software, pc, and database, web authoring tools, web server, ports, TCP/IP and the browsers. I will be explaining why these technologies are required for an e-commerce. Web servers A web server is a PC that opens pages on a browser on request. It sends the web address of the page that has been requested to the web browser. They have an IP addressRead MoreCritical Success Factors of a Successful Logistics Operator2069 Words   |  9 Pageswhat they want. There must be no errors or backorders. Frankly, with an error rate of over 5% its almost time to give up in disgust and start all over. Errors have to be tracked back to who made them, and why they werent caught out by checks in the system. People make mistakes, and processes have been in place to catch them. And the same goes for backorders. Granted, not much can be done about a late delivery with no warning, but the suppliers actual performance, not promised performance, has to beRead MoreMarket Research and market planning2366 Words   |  10 Pagesï » ¿ Assignment Title: Market Research and market planning P3 describe how a selected organisation uses marketing research to contribute to the development of its marketing plans. Task 1 Definition: market research Market research is a systematic, objective collection and analysis of data about your target market, competition, /or environment with the goal being increased understanding of them. Market research is the study of markets (or groups of people) you wouldRead MoreThe Impact Of E Commerce On Business7352 Words   |  30 Pagesthe impact of e-Commerce on business 1.1 Critically discuss the expectations of internet customers†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦4 1.2 Critically assess the potential impact of common applications on an e-Commerce business†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..........†¦8 2. Be able to plan an e-Commerce strategy 2.1 Plan an e-Commerce implementation strategy for an e-Commerce business†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦..†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.12 3. Be able to manage an e-Commerce strategy 3.1 Critically assess the risks of linking business systems to the internet†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦17Read MoreMAS Holdings Essay3609 Words   |  15 Pagesï » ¿ Organisation and management in the network era The following report contains a brief look into MAS holdings, the company’s history, how they have grown and developed and how they have succeeded in numerous ventures. The report then goes on to address the following questions: 1. Outline the key leadership issues confronting MAS Holdings. 2. 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The Importance Of Success In American History An...

In general, how successful was the lesson? Did the students learn what you intended for them to learn? How did you know? -I believe the lesson was very successful. In the beginning of the lesson, the students were engaged with the Do Now: â€Å"Who are some explores that you know? Which European nations went exploring?† I had multiple students answer with explorers from the time period we were discussing and other from American History. For example some students said, â€Å"Lewis and Clark and Buzz Aldrin.† Second, when the students were logging into Schoology and downloading the Historical Head worksheet and directions, multiple students were helping each other get on task. The students were working diligently throughout the period answering the†¦show more content†¦Some students show their personal talents by drawing images associated with their assigned explorers. Others students asked multiple questions to ensure that they were staying on task or asking me to provide feedback for their work during the period. Some of the students were looking at other websites for more histor ical information about their explorer then the document that was provided. What formative assessments did you use during this lesson to monitor student progress? How did you adjust instruction based on this data? -The formative assessments that I used to monitor the student progress were periodically checking to see how far along the students were in completing the assignment. I also provided more instruction, examples, and made sure the students were answering all the questions that were required. When I saw that multiple students were struggling with one or more of the required questions. I brought the class back together and provided examples of what I was looking for and expending from their work. For example, â€Å"Symbols that best represent the historical figure.† I told the class that these should be actual images of the explorer, where they traveled to, how did they get there, and which nation where they from. Another example of the adjustment was for, â€Å"I hope history remembers me as†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I told the class the example of Michael Jordon wants to be remembered for being one the greatest basketball players of all time. I also, saidShow MoreRelatedThe Battle At Midw ay Was A Critical Turning Point Of The War Essay957 Words   |  4 Pagesturning point of the war in the Pacific during World War II. Attribution to American success is in direct relation to their ability to conduct signal collection and crypto-analysis leading to the battle. The elimination of this capability from consideration during the preparation for this battle will drastically influence the outcome. 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Heuristics and Bias Free Essays

Before meeting with the people at Volvo, I spoke to my supervisor regarding this assignment and my choice. His initial reaction was one of judgment heuristic and availability heuristic. He felt strongly with his convictions about a Volvo due to the experience his brother-in-law had with one and went In to great length on why. We will write a custom essay sample on Heuristics and Bias or any similar topic only for you Order Now Judgment heuristic was shown here for my supervisor made his assessment and judgment of probability simpler and availability heuristic was shown here for he also used what his brother-in-law experienced which Is the process of perception and memory in the imagination. This information was available and fresh in his mind the moment Volvo was mentioned. He did not use information from consumer reports, but Instead used availability heuristic to refer to his brother-in-laws case and based his judgment on that. Events that are easily available within ones mind are more likely judged and to occur according to this heuristic. The biases, which are caused within availability heuristic, are the bias due to the easy retirement of the instances where the supervisor was able to retrieve Just one case against the negative of the Volvo. Also, notice the bias due to effectiveness of the search for the recall process. Many events are hard to recall and some are memorable such as mistakes and errors, there is a bias in the search set itself. Another bias was manageability, which played a role in the evaluation of probability in real life situations (Starker, 2007). An example I would say to him to help in Influencing his decision to a positive about Evolved would be to share a story with him regarding my recent bad experience at a four star restaurant called Blue Fish, when I ate bad shrimp. This does not mean this restaurant Is bad, It Just meaner I had one bad experience, I will either try steak or try the shrimp again for their service, drinks and appetizer were great. This does not mean I will go to my friends and family and say that this restaurant Is bad do not eat there, for In all honestly It Is not a bad restaurant and it Just so happens I had one bad shrimp that resulted in an upset stomach. I would end this example with a question of â€Å"who has this not happened to t any restaurant where one NAS and bad t one time or another? The type tot heuristic that will be employed here to influence my supervisor will be adjustment and anchoring. When adjusting ones beliefs in light of new information there needs to be solid evidence against it. Insufficient adjustment due to anchoring can lead to mistakes. I believe the research I have done is solid information to prayers and influence my supervisor to help change his mind regarding Vole’s (Plops, Chip. 13, 19 93). When I meet with my supervisor once again, I will influence his decision about Vole’s with these facts and statistics such as: with more storage space, redesigned due to feedback from past years, premium small sedan new safety features with more horsepower, a blind spot information system as added as well as a new automatic hazard warning additional optional fun gadgets such as SIRIUS Satellite Radio and high performance audio system (new holds its own against other sport automobiles, cars’, 2007), for most buyers, the standard suspension setup provides plenty of thrills while providing more cushioning over potholes when driving along, while yes it may not have the prestige or athleticism of its German foes, this Volvo costs less, has style with a premium feel, with upgrades added the price may go up, but for a company car one should be reasonable, the base engine will be perfectly adequate ND basic package, this Volvo has slightly better fuel economy than the 2. 41 (Ed munds, 2007), Keeping in mind while all vehicles have their quirks and hiccup one should personally test-drive a vehicle before forming an opinion on what he or she thinks. With all the pros and cons, many people will form their own decisions in the end. The few that I have researched have said that the Volvo S’40 is refined, classy, great and runs Just fine. Even without a slightly more powerful engine, it is as much of a â€Å"real† Volvo as any car is a â€Å"real† car. By utilizing the heuristic strategy f anchoring and adjustment, I feel that I can show my supervisor that what happened to his brother-in-law has happened to many with any vehicle. I would have him ponder on that for a bit, while at the same time showing him what others have to say about the Volvo. I would inform him of the research I did through nectars. Com, Edmunds. Com, and Flavors. Com. By informing him of this, I am using multiple anchor points to help make the final decision that the Volvo is the way to go. When one makes or Judges something or someone based on vividness or recent events, they employ availability heuristic. To help one change their mind or point of view we want to anchor the way adjustment is used and when a decision needs to be made it is made by adjustments to this anchor or starting point. The use of anchoring and adjustment may work in many cases such as this, but at times will not always weigh enough to other factors (Plops, Chip. 13, 1993). References AAU Online. (De. ). (ca. 2006). Unit 3: Heuristics and Bias [multimedia presentation]. Hoffman Estates, IL: AAU Online. How to cite Heuristics and Bias, Papers

Profit Maximization Business

Question: Discuss about the Report for Profit Maximization Business. Answer: 1. Introduction Profit maximization is the objective of each firm. It is the difference between the revenue and costs. In order to run a business, it is important to generate higher profit to increase the operation and scale of the business. However, profit is not used to pay wage; tax or interest, it remains within the firm and invested for further improvement. Therefore, it is important to take right decision that would maximize the level of profit. In the short run, profit can be achieved by avoiding different costs, however, in the long run a firm has to make decision very carefully. By ensuring long run profit, a firm will be able to become competitive in the market. Analysis In a perfectly competitive market structure, all firms attain a constant zero profit level in the long run equilibrium. In reality, firms earn different level of profits. This is mainly because of imperfect competition. Imperfect competition takes place when firm differentiate their product. Differentiation can be made in terms of high product quality that requires innovation or advertising. Innovation is a continuous process and continuous flow of investment is required. In contrast, the advertising is a once-off expenditure. Through advertisement the firms communicate with the consumers and broader society. Advertising is able to change the importance that is attached to specific features of the good. The advertisement differentiates its product by disclosing its quality; price or special feature that is distinct from products of other firms. The distinct features differentiate the products from the competitors. This will reduce the degree of substitution. The major impact of spending in advertisement is the increase in the sales volume. Product differentiation enables the firm to increase its amount of sale, even if the product price is premium. Even if the firm has spent huge amount on advertisement, high sales volume guarantees fairly high margin of costs (Hubbard et al., 2012). This leads to high profits as quantity and price both are high. Therefore, the fixed discretionary advertisement cost of advertising will be justified and can lead to high profit in the future. Figure 1: Advertisement Cost Source: Yan et al., 2014. According to Baumol, increase in the total advertising will increase total revenue, even if there will be diminishing return (Yan et al., 2014). If the firm wants to maximize profit, it will incur advertising cost of OA1. However, if it wants to maximize its sales then it will spend higher cost of advertisement. However, sales maximization is a feature of oligopoly market structure. Monopolistically competitive firm mostly engaged in product differentiation. These firm earn abnormal profit in the short run, however, in the long run they earn normal profit. Figure 2: Supernormal Profit in Short Run Source: Mankiw, 2014 Figure 3:Normal Profit in Long Run Source: Mankiw, 2014 Product differentiation is practiced through innovation and less innovation requires more advertisement. By spending on RD activity, the firm can differentiate its product. However, RD is a risky activity and may result into higher cost than revenue collected in short run. In spite of this fact, this strategy is adopted in order to offer a different product, which will in turn improve sales of the company in the short run as well as long run (Harimaya et al., 2012). Conclusion From the above discussion, it can be said that through once-off expenditure on product differentiation, may lead to maximising economic profit in the long run. However, in practical, the firms emphasize on sales maximization in the long run than profit maximization. Therefore, they focus on making their product different from others through advertising and innovation in order to compete with others in future. 2. Introduction Wage is determined by the law of demand and supply in the labour market. The wage is also paid according to the skill level of the workers. However, in most of the developed economy, the government has set minimum wage, so that wage rate does not fall under certain level (Case, Fair Oster, 2012). The wage rate is different across the occupation and across the industry. However, it has been seen in many cases that the wage is different within the occupation and industry as well. This is often remained unexplained. Analysis The wage is different because the abilities of the workers are not same in a company. a high skilled workers are paid higher wage than a low skilled worker within a company. In addition to this the demand and supply of labours are not same in every sector or across different occupation (Neumuller, 2015). There is huge demand for certain kind of jobs, i.e. supply of labour for a specific job is very high than the vacant positions. In such case, wage tends to fall to reduce the demand. Similarly, when there is vacant position but labour supply is less, the wage tends to increase, to bridge the gap between the demand and supply of labour. The vacant position and eligible labours are different across the occupation and across the industry. Hence, wage differential takes place. Figure 4: Labour Market Source: Created by Author The range of wage varies within the same occupation, because of payment according to the performance standard. In white-collar jobs, workers have high scope to improve their performance as they are engaged in multiple duties. Whereas, the blue-collar jobs offer little scope to improve their performance standard given the type of their work (Visintin et al., 2015). The wage differential also takes place within or across the same industry, because; requirement of skills and the skill levels are different. Apart from heterogeneity in performance and skill, the wage dispersion takes place due to mechanism of search and matching process between employer and workers. Wage also differs due to individual features like gender; age and often race as well. Conclusion From the above discussion, it can be said that theoretically wage rate differs because of different demand and supply across different industries and different occupations. However, in reality, there are several factors that cause wage differential. Such factors are performance improvement ability; individual feature; job searching tenure and so on. These factors vary across the industries. Therefore, economists find it difficult to explain the causes of wage dispersion. References Case, K. E., Fair, R. C., Oster, S. M. (2012). Principles of economics. Prentice Hall, Harimaya, K., Ohkawa, T., Okamura, M., Shinkai, T. (2012). Sales-Maximization vs. Profit-Maximization: Managerial Behavior at Japanese Regional Banks 1980-2009 (No. 94). Hubbard, G., Garnett, A., Lewis, P. (2012). Essentials of economics. Pearson Higher Education AU. Mankiw, N. G. (2014). Principles of macroeconomics. Cengage Learning. Neumuller, S. (2015). Inter-industry wage differentials revisited: Wage volatility and the option value of mobility. Journal of Monetary Economics, 76, 38-54. Visintin, S., Tijdens, K., Steinmetz, S., de Pedraza, P. (2015). Task implementation heterogeneity and wage dispersion. IZA Journal of Labor Economics, 4(1), 1. Yan, R., Myers, C., Wang, J., Ghose, S. (2014). Bundling products to success: The influence of complementarity and advertising. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 21(1), 48-53.